Sunday 28 November 2010

Oligofructose

What is oligofructose vs fructose vs sucrose?

Wikipedia

Introduction

Fructooligosaccharides (FOS) also sometimes called oligofructose or oligofructan, is a class of oligosaccharides used as an artificial or alternative sweetener. FOS exhibits sweetness levels between 30 and 50 percent of sugar in commercially-prepared syrups. It occurs naturally, and its commercial use emerged in the 1980s in response to consumer demand for healthier and calorie-reduced foods. The term oligosaccharide refers to a short chain of sugar molecules (in the case of FOS, fructose molecules). Oligo means few, and saccharide means sugar.

Food Chemistry

Two different classes of fructooligosaccharide (FOS) mixtures are produced commercially, based on inulin degradation or transfructosylation processes.

Inulin degradation
FOS can be produced by degradation of inulin, or polyfructose, a polymer of D-fructose residues linked by β(2-1) bonds with a terminal α(1-2) linked D-glucose. The degree of polymerization of inulin ranges from 10 to 60. Inulin can be degraded enzymatically or chemically to a mixture of oligosaccharides with the general structure Glu-(Fru)n (GFn) and Frum, (Fm), with n,m ranging from 1 to 7. This process also occurs to some extent in nature, and these oligosaccharides can be found in a large number of plants, especially in Jerusalem artichoke and chicory. This type of FOS is mainly marketed commercially by Orafti Ltd., Tienen Belgium, which markets the product as Oligofructose (or Raftilose). The company also markets inulin as oligofructose. Other producers include the Dutch company Cosun (which markets the product as Frutafit or Frutalose) and others. The main components of this class are kestose (GF2), nystose (GF3), fructosylnystose (GF4), bifurcose (GF3), inulobiose (F2), inulotriose (F3), and inulotetraose (F4).

Transfructosylation
The second class of FOS is prepared by the transfructosylation action of a β-fructosidase of Aspergillus niger on saccharose. The resulting mixture has the general formula of GFn with n ranging from 1 to 5. Contrary to the inulin derived FOS, the binding is not only β(1-2), but other linkages do occur, though in limited numbers. This class is mainly produced in Japan by Meiji Seika Kaisha.

Osidic bonds are not hydrolysed
Because of the configuration of their osidic bonds, fructooligosaccharides resist hydrolysis by salivary and intestinal digestive enzymes. In the colon they are fermented by anaerobic bacteria. In other words, they have a lower caloric value, whilst contributing to the dietary fiber fraction of the diet. Fructooligosaccharides are more soluble than inulins and are therefore sometimes used as an additive to yoghurt and other (dairy) products. Fructooligosaccharides are used specially in combination with high-intensity artificial sweeteners, whose sweetness profile and aftertaste it improves.

Food Sources

FOS is extracted from fruits and vegetables such as bananas, onions, chicory root, garlic, asparagus, barley, wheat, jícama, tomatoes, and leeks. The Jerusalem artichoke and its relative, yacón have been found to have the highest concentrations of FOS of cultured plants.

 

Health Benefits

FOS has been a popular dietary supplement in Japan for many years, even before 1990, when the Japanese government installed a "Functionalized Food Study Committee" of 22 experts to start to regulate "special nutrition foods or functional foods" that contain the categories of fortified foods (e.g., vitamin-fortified wheat flour), and is now becoming increasingly popular in Western cultures for its prebiotic effects. FOS serves as a substrate for microflora in the large intestine, increasing the overall gastrointestinal tract (GI Tract) health. It has also been touted as a supplement for preventing yeast infections.

Several studies have found that FOS and inulin promote calcium absorption in both the animal and human gut.The intestinal microflora in the lower gut can ferment FOS, which results in a reduced pH. Calcium is more soluble in acid, and, therefore, more of it comes out of food and is available to move from the gut into the bloodstream.

FOS can be considered a small dietary fibre with (like all types of fibre) low caloric value. The fermentation of FOS results in the production of gases and acids. The latter provide some energy to the body.

 

Side-effects

All inulin-type prebiotics, including FOS, are generally thought to stimulate the growth of Bifidobacteria species. Bifidobacteria are considered as "Friendly" bacteria. This effect has not been uniformly found in all studies, both for Bifidobacteria and other gut organisms. FOS are also fermented by numerous bacterial species in the intestine, including Klebsiella, E. coli and many Clostridium species, which are considered less-friendly bacteria in the gut. These species are mainly responsible for the gas formation (hydrogen and carbon dioxide), which results after ingestion of FOS. Most people can eat 5-10 gram of FOS without gaseous discomfort, whereas others have problems with 1 gram. The estimated optimal dose for adults is around 5-10 gram/day.

 

Regulation

US FDA Regulation

FOS is generally recognized as safe (GRAS).


NZ NZFSA Regulation

The Food Safety Authority warned parents of babies that a major European Baby-Formula brand made in New Zealand does not comply with local regulations, (because it contains fructo-oligosaccharides (FOS)) and urged them to stop using it.


EU Regulation

FOS use has been approved in the European Union; allowing addition of FOS in restricted amounts to baby formula (for babies up to six months) and follow-on formula (for babies between six and 12 months). Infant and follow-on formula products containing FOS have been sold in the EU since 1999.


Canadian Regulations

FOS is currently not approved for use in baby formula.
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FOS Supplier

Beneo-Orafti
Orafti® oligofructose is available in liquid or powder form. It consists of oligofructose and the natural sugars glucose, fructose and sucrose in varying combinations. It is a mixture of oligosaccharides which are composed of fructose units connected by ß (2-1) links. Some of these molecules are terminated by a glucose unit. The total number of fructose or glucose units (Degree of Polymerisation or DP) of oligofructose ranges mainly between 2 and 8.

With its moderately sweet taste, oligofructose is a natural sugar replacer. When oligofructose is blended with high intensity sweeteners, a synergy is created which eliminates the artificial aftertaste of the sweeteners. Certain fruit flavours are also more pronounced when used in combination with oligofructose.

Oligofructose is more soluble than sucrose. It does not crystallise, precipitate or leave a dry or sandy feeling in the mouth.

--
FOS Exporter

Food & Beverage » Food Ingredients » Sugar & Sweeteners » Fructo Oligosaccharide

We have been exporting the sweetener to worldwide market.

Fructo-oligo-saccharides (fos), or referred to as fructans, oligosaccharides, oligofructose and inulin, are complex carbohydrates found in several common foods and myriad medicinal herbs. Fructans taste sweet (1/4 the sweetness of sugar) however unlike sugar and starch, they add no calories to food because they are not digested by stomach enzymes or acids.

Fructo-oligosaccharide powder
Fructo-oligosaccharide is a new healthy sugar source. Its structure can be expressed as gf-fn, (n=1-9). Fructooligosaccharide (fos) is a food ingredient naturally occurring in honey, fruits and plants. It is a natural soluble vegetable fiber with a low caloric value and patient-friendly. It has the function of cleaning intestines, good multiplication effect of beneficial bacteria, enhancing immunity.

The physical and chemical character of fos
Fos is fermented by the colonicmicroflora. It promotes the growth of bifidobacteria, improves the composition of the intestinal flora and decreases the blood cholesterol content. Fos can be a dietary supplement, it is widely used in yogurt, bakery, functional and dietetic food, pills, liquors and etc.

Fos syrup
Product classification: Fos_55% fos_95%
Product introduction: Fructo- oligosaccharide, fos is also know as oligofructoseor or sucrosetrisacchride, its molecular formula is gf-fn, n=1_3(g: Glucosyl group, f: Fructosy group), which contented by 1_kestose(gf2), nystose(gf3), 1-fructofuranosyl nystose (gf4) and their mixtures. Industrialized fos is primrose yellow or light yellow. The fos is the typical prebiotics product.

Function of fructo-oligosaccharide
1. As the representatives of functional oligosaccharide, it has two-way regulation to balance the micro-ecology in intestine. Fos is remarkable in promoting reproduction of bifidobactirium, it directly enters into large intestine without being absorbed by human stomach and small intestine, and is used by bifidobactititum for reproduction; It cannot be utilized by harmful bacteria in intestine, so as to suppress harmful bacteria and protection of human health. Low saccharinely, low caloric.
2. The saccharinely of fos is approximately one-third of sucrose. The fos doesn't be decomposed α -amylase, sucrose invertase and maltase; Cannot be used as energy by human body; Will not lead to elevated blood sugar level, so it is very suitable for patients with diabetes and obesity are edible.
3. Purgation. Fructo-oligosaccharides in the human body should not be digested and absorbed.
4. Resistant against tooth decay. Functional fructo-oligosaccharide generally has no adverse effects on teeth. Dental caries was mainly due to oral micro-organisms, especially streptococcus mutant (streptococcus mutans) generated by the use of sugar acid, especially lactic acid and water-soluble β -glucan result. Functional fructo-oligosaccharide oral micro-organisms should not become the role of the above-mentioned substrate, nor the role of cell condensation, and thus will not cause dental caries changed.
5. Promote the absorption of minerals. Fos have capacity of interception with minerals such as Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn. Fos can not be decomposed by digestive enzymes, in the large intestine, with fos was ferment decomposition by bifidobacteria, mineral ion released. In addition, fos by bifidobacteria, such as fermentation to produce short-chain fatty acids reduce the intestinal pH, in acidic environment, increasing at a rate of many minerals dissolved, which is conducive to the absorption. 


Sources:
http://www.beneo-orafti.com/Our-Products/Oligofructose
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fructooligosaccharide
http://www.busytrade.com/selling-leads/1634606/Fructo-Oligosaccharide.html

Amino Acids - special amino acids

Proline
The carbon atoms in proline are numbered as in pyrrolidine, the nitrogen atom being numbered 1, and proceeding towards the carboxyl group.


Aromatic Rings
The carbon atoms in the aromatic rings of phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan are numbered as in systematic nomenclature, with 1 (or 3 for tryptophan) designating the carbon atom bearing the aliphatic chain. The carbon atoms of this chain are designated alpha (for the carbon atom attached to the amino and carboxyl groups) and beta (for the atom attached to the ring system).
Note. This numbering should also be used for decarboxylated products (e.g. tryptamine).


Histidine
The nitrogen atoms of the imidazole ring of histidine are denoted by pros ('near', abbreviated (pi) [pi]) and tele ('far', abbreviated (tau) [tau]) to show their position relative to the side chain. This recommendation [6,10] arose from the fact that two different systems of numbering the atoms in the imidazole ring of histidine had both been used for a considerable time (biochemists generally numbering as 1 the nitrogen atom adjacent to the side chain, and organic chemists designating it as 3). The carbon atom between the two ring nitrogen atoms is numbered 2 (as in imidazole), and the carbon atom next to the (tau) [tau] nitrogen is numbered 5. The carbon atoms of the aliphatic chain are designated alpha and beta as in 2.2.1 and 2.2.3 above. This numbering should also be used for the decarboxylation product histamine and for substituted histidine.



Definition of Side Chain
When amino acids are combined in proteins and peptides, C-l, C-2 and N-2 of each residue (the numbering being that of aliphatic amino acids) form the repeating unit of the main chain ('backbone') and the remainder forms a 'side chain'. Hence the words 'side chain' refer to C-3 and higher numbered carbon atoms and their substituents.
 
Use of the Prefix 'homo'
An alpha-amino acid that is otherwise similar to one of the common ones (Table 1), but that contains one more methylene group in the carbon chain, may be named by prefixing 'homo' to the name of that common amino acid. 'Homo' in the sense of a higher homologue (F-4.5 of [15]) is commonly used for homoserine (2-amino-4-hydroxybutanoic acid) and homocysteine (2-amino-4-mercaptobutanoic acid).
 
Use of the Prefix 'nor'
The prefix 'nor' denotes removal of a methylene group (Sections F-4.2 and F-4.4 of [15]), but this is not the sense in which it has been used in the names 'norvaline' and 'norleucine'. Such names, although widely used, may therefore be misinterpreted, so we cannot recommend them, especially since the systematic names for the compounds intended, 2-aminopentanoic acid and 2-aminohexanoic acid, are short.


Source: http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/AA1n2.html#AA1

Amino Acids - one-letter codes

One-letter amino acid codes

The Code Symbols
Click here for "table free" view if the table below is faulty.

The symbols are listed, in alphabetical order of amino-acid names, in Table 1. Table 5 gives them in alphabetical order of symbols.
 

Table 5. The One-Letter Symbols

One-letter
symbol
Three-letter
symbol
Amino acid
AAlaalanine
BAsxaspartic acid or asparagine
CCyscysteine
DAspaspartic acid
EGluglutamic acid
FPhephenylalanine
GGlyglycine
HHishistidine
IIleisoleucine
KLyslysine
LLeuleucine
MMetmethionine
NAsnasparagine
PProproline
QGlnglutamine
RArgarginine
SSerserine
TThrthreonine
U*Secselenocysteine
VValvaline
WTrptryptophan
X**Xaaunknown or 'other' amino acid
YTyrtyrosine
ZGlxglutamic acid or glutamine (or substances such as
4-carboxyglutamic acid and 5-oxoproline that
yield glutamic acid on acid hydrolysis of peptides)
 * See JCBN/NC-IUBMB Newsletter 1999 for recommendations on selenocysteine
** See the Addendum for an alternative use of X.

Source: http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/A2021.html#AA211

Amino Acids and Peptides

Amino Acids with Trivial Names
Click here for "table free" view if the Table below is faulty.

It is often helpful to use trivial names in order to avoid cumbersome systematic or semisystematic names, particularly if the substance has to be named frequently. Coining of trivial names is treated in 3AA-2.1, and a number of existing trivial names are listed in the appendices to the previous edition of recommendations on amino-acid nomenclature [6]; only the commoner are listed here.

Trivial nameSymbolStructure of substance or of derived ion in the form predominating at neutral pH
[beta]-Alanine[beta]AlaNH3+-CH2-CH2-COO-
Allysine-HCO-[CH2]3-CH(NH3+)COO-
CitrullineCitNH2-CO-NH-[CH2]3-CH(NH3+)COO-
Cystathionine
Cysteic acidCya-O3S-CH2-CH(NH3+)COO-
Cystine
Dopa-
HomocysteineHcyHS-CH2-CH2-CH(NH3+)COO-
HomoserineHseHO-CH2-CH2-CH(NH3+)COO-error details
Homoserine lactoneHsl
Lanthionine
Ornithine
NH3+-[CH2]3-CH(NH3+)COO-
5-OxoprolineGlp
SarcosineSarCH3-NH2+-CH2-COO-
SelenocysteineSecHSe-CH2-CH(NH3+)COO-
Thyronine-
ThyroxineThx


Source: http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/AminoAcid/AAap.html

Glycolipids

Naming of monosaccharide residues
Monosaccharide residues are named and abbreviated (Table 1) according to the proposed rules of nomenclature recommendations for carbohydrates [4] (see also the nomenclature of glycoproteins [2]). The D and L configurational symbols are generally omitted; all monosaccharides are D with the exception of fucose and rhamnose which are L unless otherwise specified.


TABLE 1.
Recommended abbreviations for some monosaccharides, derivatives and related compounds
NameSymbol
N-acetylgalactosamineGalNAc
N-acetylglucosamineGlcNAc
N-acetylneuraminic acid1Neu5Ac or NeuAc
5,9-N,O-diacetylneuraminic acid1Neu5,9Ac2
fucose (6-deoxygalactose)Fuc
galactitolGal-ol
galactosamineGalN
galactopyranose 3-sulfateGalp3S
galactoseGal
galacturonic acidGalA
glucitolGlc-ol
glucosamineGlcN
glucoseGlc
glucose 6-phosphateGlcp6P
glucuronic acidGlcA
N-glycoloylneuraminic acid1Neu5Gc or NeuGc
myo-inositol2Ins
mannoseMan
4-O-methylgalactoseGal4Me
rhamnoseRha
xyloseXyl

 Neutral glycosphingolipids with oligosaccharide chains
5.3.1. Systematic names for glycosphingolipids with larger oligosaccharide chains become rather cumbersome. It is therefore recommended to use semi-systematic names in which trivial names for "root" structures are used as a prefix. The recommended root names and structures are given in Table 2.
The name of a given glycosphingolipid is then composed of (root name)(root size)osylceramide. Thus, lactotetraosylceramide designates the second structure listed in Table 2 linked to a ceramide. When referring to particular glycose residues Roman numerals are used (Lip-3.9 in [1]), counting from the ceramide (see Table 2).
 

TABLE 2. Root names and structures

RootSymbolRoot structure


IV     III     II     I
ganglioGgGalb3GalNAcb4Galb4Glc-
lacto1LcGalb3GlcNAcb3Galb4Glc-
neolacto2nLcGalb4GlcNAcb3Galb4Glc-
globoGbGalNAcb3Gala4Galb4Glc-
isoglobo2iGbGalNAcb3Gala3Galb4Glc-
molluMuGlcNAcb2Mana3Manb4Glc-
arthroAtGalNAcb4GlcNAcb3Manb4Glc-

The Svennerholm abbreviations for brain gangliosides
In this system, the fact that we are dealing with gangliosides is indicated by the letter G, the number of sialic acid residues is stated by M for mono-, D for di-, T for tri- and Q for tetrasialoglycosphingolipids. A number is then assigned to the individual compound which referred initially to its migration order in a certain chromatographic system [13].
Though these designations are far from being systematic, and it is impossible to derive the structure from them, they have the advantage of being short and well understood since they have been in use for a long time. A list of these abbreviations is given in Table 3.
Since there is no clear-cut system in these abbreviations, it is not recommended to extend the list by coining new symbols of this kind. As a result, the following two cases are examples of abbreviations that should not be used.
1) A disialoganglioside, Neu5Aca3Galb3(Neu5Aca6)GalNAcb4Galb4GlcCer has been abbreviated GD1a. This practice should be discontinued. The recommended abbreviation for this compound is IV3-a-Neu5Ac,III6-a-Neu5Ac-Gg4Cer. error details
2) The system has been extended to gangliosides of other "root" types, such as those derived from lactotetraosylceramide. An example of this kind is the widely distributed ganglioside called sialoparagloboside, Neu5Aca3Galb4GlcNAcb3Galb4GlcCer, which has at times been abbreviated LM1, but should be referred to as IV3-a-Neu5Ac-nLc4Cer. error details
 

TABLE 3. Some abbreviations using the Svennerholm system

StructureAbbreviation*
Neu5Aca3Galb4GlcCerGM3
GalNAcb4(Neu5Aca3)Galb4GlcCerGM2
Galb3GalNAcb4(Neu5Aca3)Galb4GlcCerGM1a
Neu5Aca3Galb3GalNAcb4Galb4GlcCerGM1b
Neu5Aca8Neu5Aca3Galb4GlcCerGD3
GalNAcb4(Neu5Aca8Neu5Aca3)Galb4GlcCerGD2
Neu5Aca3Galb3GalNAcb4(Neu5Aca3)Galb4GlcCerGD1a
Galb3GalNAcb4(Neu5Aca8Neu5Aca3)Galb4GlcCerGD1b
Neu5Aca8Neu5Aca3Galb3GalNAcb4(Neu5Aca3)Galb4GlcCerGT1a
Neu5Aca3Galb3GalNAcb4(Neu5Aca8Neu5Aca3)Galb4GlcCerGT1b
Galb3GalNAcb4(Neu5Aca8Neu5Aca8Neu5Aca3)Galb4GlcCerGT1c
Neu5Aca8Neu5Aca3Galb3GalNAcb4(Neu5Aca8Neu5ca3)Galb4GlcCerGQ1b

Source: http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/misc/glylp.html

Glossary of Glycose-based Terms

Nomenclature of Carbohydrates (Recommendations 1996)

Glossary of Glycose-based Terms


aThe biochemical usage is widely established in the literature.
bThe biochemical usage implies the parents 'glycuronose', 'sialose', and 'neuraminose'.
c'Neuraminyl' and 'sialyl' have been used, but are likely to be interpreted as referring to acyl groups; the terms given are more consistent with the terms used for glycosides.

Source: http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/2carb/glo.html

Glossary of Terms Used in Medicinal Chemistry A to H

Glossary of Terms Used in Medicinal Chemistry
(IUPAC Recommendations 1998)

A to H

Contents Active transport, Address-message concept, ADME, Affinity, Agonist, Allosteric binding sites, Allosteric enzyme, Allosteric regulation, Analog, Antagonist, Antimetabolite, Antisense molecule, Autacoid, Autoreceptor, Bioassay, Bioisostere, Bioprecursor prodrug, Biotransformation, CADD See Computer-assisted drug design., Carrier-linked prodrug (Carrier prodrug), Cascade prodrug, Catabolism, Catabolite , Clone, Codon, Coenzyme, Combinatorial library, Combinatorial synthesis, CoMFA See Comparative Molecular Field Analysis, Comparative Molecular Field Analysis (CoMFA), Computational chemistry, Computer-assisted drug design (CADD), Congener, Cooperativity, 3D-QSAR See Three-dimensional Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship, De novo design, Disposition See Drug disposition, Distomer, Docking studies, Double-blind study, Double prodrug (or pro-prodrug), Drug, Drug disposition, Drug latentiation, Drug targeting, Dual action drug, Efficacy, Elimination, Enzyme, Enzyme induction, Enzyme repression, Eudismic ratio, Eutomer, Genome, Hansch analysis, Hapten, Hard drug, Heteroreceptor, Homologue, Hormone, Hydrophilicity, Hydrophobicity.

Source: http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/medchem/ah.html

Glossary of Terms Used in Medicinal Chemistry I to X

Glossary of Terms Used in Medicinal Chemistry
(IUPAC Recommendations 1998)

I to X

Continue from terms starting with A to H.  
Contents
IND, Intrinsic activity, Inverse agonist, Isosteres, Latentiated drug See Drug Latentiation., Lead discovery, Lead generation, Lead optimization, Lipophilicity, Medicinal chemistry, Metabolism, Metabolite, Me-too drug, Molecular graphics, Molecular modeling, Mutagen, Mutual prodrug, NCE See New Chemical Entity., NDA, New Chemical Entity., Non-classical isostere See Bioisostere., Nucleic acid, Nucleoside, Nucleotide, Oligonucleotide, Oncogene, Orphan drug, Partial agonist, Pattern recognition, Peptidomimetic, Peptoid, Pfeiffer's rule, Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacophore (pharmacophoric pattern), Pharmacophoric descriptors, Placebo, Potency, Prodrug, QSAR See Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships, Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationships (QSAR), Receptor, Receptor mapping, Second messenger, Site-specific delivery, Soft drug, SPC See Structure-property correlations, Structure-activity relationship (SAR), Structure-based design, Structure-property correlations (SPC), Systemic, Teratogen, Three-dimensional Quantitative Structure-Activity Relationship (3D-QSAR) , Topliss tree, Transition-state analog, Xenobiotic

Source: http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iupac/medchem/ix.html

Anatomy of the Human Body

Anatomy of the Human Body
 
Henry Gray
 
The Bartleby.com edition of Gray’s Anatomy of the Human Body features 1,247 vibrant engravings—many in color—from the classic 1918 publication, as well as a subject index with 13,000 entries ranging from the Antrum of Highmore to the Zonule of Zinn.
 
Search:    
CONTENTS
Bibliographic Record    Preface    Illustrations    Subject Index
TWENTIETH EDITION
THOROUGHLY REVISED AND RE-EDITED BY WARREN H. LEWIS
ILLUSTRATED WITH 1247 ENGRAVINGS


PHILADELPHIA: LEA & FEBIGER, 1918
NEW YORK: BARTLEBY.COM, 2000


Introduction
Anatomical Bibliography
 
I. Embryology
  1. The Animal Cell
  2. The Ovum
  3. The Spermatozoön
  4. Fertilization of the Ovum
  5. Segmentation of the Fertilized Ovum
  6. The Neural Groove and Tube
  7. The Notochord
  8. The Primitive Segments
  9. Separation of the Embryo
  10. The Yolk-sac
  11. Development of the Fetal Membranes and Placenta
  12. The Branchial Region
  13. Development of the Body Cavities
  14. The Form of the Embryo at Different Stages of Its Growth
Bibliography
 
II. Osteology
  1. Introduction
  2. Bone
  3. The Vertebral Column
    a. General Characteristics of a Vertebra
    1. The Cervical Vertebræ
    2. The Thoracic Vertebræ
    3. The Lumbar Vertebræ
    4. The Sacral and Coccygeal Vertebræ
    b. The Vertebral Column as a Whole
  4. The Thorax
    a. The Sternum
    b. The Ribs
    c. The Costal Cartilages
  5. The Skull
    a. The Cranial Bones
    1. The Occipital Bone
    2. The Parietal Bone
    3. The Frontal Bone
    4. The Temporal Bone
    5. The Sphenoid Bone
    6. Ethmoid bone
    b. The Facial Bones
    1. The Nasal Bones
    2. The Maxillæ (Upper Jaw)
    3. The Lacrimal Bone
    4. The Zygomatic Bone
    5. The Palatine Bone
    6. The Inferior Nasal Concha
    7. The Vomer
    8. The Mandible (Lower Jaw)
    9. The Hyoid Bone
    c. The Exterior of the Skull
    d. The Interior of the Skull
  6. The Extremities
    a. The Bones of the Upper Extremity
    1. The Clavicle
    2. The Scapula
    3. The Humerus
    4. The Ulna
    5. The Radius
    b. The Hand
    1. The Carpus
    2. The Metacarpus
    3. The Phalanges of the Hand
    c. The Bones of the Lower Extremity
    1. The Hip Bone
    2. The Pelvis
    3. The Femur
    4. The Patella
    5. The Tibia
    6. The Fibula
    d. The Foot
    1. The Tarsus
    2. The Metatarsus
    3. The Phalanges of the Foot
    4. Comparison of the Bones of the Hand and Foot
    5. The Sesamoid Bones
 
III. Syndesmology
  1. Introduction
  2. Development of the Joints
  3. Classification of Joints
  4. The Kind of Movement Admitted in Joints
  5. Articulations of the Trunk
    a. Articulations of the Vertebral Column
    b. Articulation of the Atlas with the Epistropheus or Axis
    c. Articulations of the Vertebral Column with the Cranium
    d. Articulation of the Mandible
    e. Costovertebral Articulations
    f. Sternocostal Articulations
    g. Articulation of the Manubrium and Body of the Sternum
    h. Articulation of the Vertebral Column with the Pelvis
    i. Articulations of the Pelvis
  6. Articulations of the Upper Extremity
    a. Sternoclavicular Articulation
    b. Acromioclavicular Articulation
    c. Humeral Articulation or Shoulder-joint
    d. Elbow-joint
    e. Radioulnar Articulation
    f. Radiocarpal Articulation or Wrist-joint
    g. Intercarpal Articulations
    h. Carpometacarpal Articulations
    i. Intermetacarpal Articulations
    j. Metacarpophalangeal Articulations
    k. Articulations of the Digits
  7. Articulations of the Lower Extremity
    a. Coxal Articulation or Hip-joint
    b. The Knee-joint
    c. Articulations between the Tibia and Fibula
    d. Talocrural Articulation or Ankle-joint
    e. Intertarsal Articulations
    f. Tarsometatarsal Articulations
    g. Intermetatarsal Articulations
    h. Metatarsophalangeal Articulations
    i. Articulations of the Digits
    j. Arches of the Foot
 
IV. Myology
  1. Mechanics of Muscle
  2. Development of the Muscles
  3. Tendons, Aponeuroses, and Fasciæ
  4. The Fasciæ and Muscles of the Head.
    a. The Muscles of the Scalp
    b. The Muscles of the Eyelid
    c. The Muscles of the Nose
    d. The Muscles of the Mouth
    e. The Muscles of Mastication
  5. The Fasciæ and Muscles of the Anterolateral Region of the Neck
    a. The Superficial Cervical Muscle
    b. The Lateral Cervical Muscles
    c. The Supra- and Infrahyoid Muscles
    d. The Anterior Vertebral Muscles
    e. The Lateral Vertebral Muscles
  6. The Fasciæ and Muscles of the Trunk
    a. The Deep Muscles of the Back
    b. The Suboccipital Muscles
    c. The Muscles of the Thorax
    d. The Muscles and Fasciæ of the Abdomen
    e. The Muscles and Fasciæ of the Pelvis
    f. The Muscles and Fasciæ of the Perineum
  7. The Fascia and Muscles of the Upper Extremity
    a. The Muscles Connecting the Upper Extremity to the Vertebral Column
    b. The Muscles Connecting the Upper Extremity to the Anterior and Lateral Thoracic Walls
    c. The Muscles and Fasciæ of the Shoulder
    d. The Muscles and Fasciæ of the Arm
    e. The Muscles and Fasciæ of the Forearm
    f. The Muscles and Fasciæ of the Hand
  8. The Muscles and Fasciæ of the Lower Extremity.
    a. The Muscles and Fasciæ of the Iliac Region
    b. The Muscles and Fasciæ of the Thigh
    c. The Muscles and Fasciæ of the Leg
    d. The Fasciæ Around the Ankle
    e. The Muscles and Fasciæ of the Foot
Bibliography
 
V. Angiology
  1. Introduction
  2. The Blood
  3. Development of the Vascular System
  4. The Thoracic Cavity
    a. The Pericardium
    b. The Heart
    c. Peculiarities in the Vascular System in the Fetus
Bibliography
 
VI. The Arteries
  1. Introduction
  2. The Aorta
  3. The Arteries of the Head and Neck
    a. The Common Carotid Artery
    1. Relations
    2. The External Carotid Artery
    3. The Triangles of the Neck
    4. The Internal Carotid Artery
    b. The Arteries of the Brain
  4. The Arteries of the Upper Extremity
    a. The Subclavian Artery
    b. The Axilla
    1. The Axillary Artery
    2. The Brachial Artery
    3. The Radial Artery
    4. The Ulnar Artery
  5. The Arteries of the Trunk
    a. The Descending Aorta
    1. The Thoracic Aorta
    2. The Abdominal Aorta
    b. The Common Iliac Arteries
    1. The Hypogastric Artery
    2. The External Iliac Artery
  6. The Arteries of the Lower Extremity
    a. The Femoral Artery
    b. The Popliteal Fossa
    c. The Popliteal Artery
    d. The Anterior Tibial Artery
    e. The Arteria Dorsalis Pedis
    f. The Posterior Tibial Artery
Bibliography
 
VII. The Veins
  1. Introduction
  2. The Pulmonary Veins
  3. The Systemic Veins
    a. The Veins of the Heart
    b. The Veins of the Head and Neck
    1. The Veins of the Exterior of the Head and Face
    2. The Veins of the Neck
    3. The Diploic Veins
    4. The Veins of the Brain
    5. The Sinuses of the Dura Mater. Ophthalmic Veins and Emissary Veins
    c. The Veins of the Upper Extremity and Thorax
    d. The Veins of the Lower Extremity, Abdomen, and Pelvis
  4. The Portal System of Veins
 
VIII. The Lymphatic System
  1. Introduction
  2. The Thoractic Duct
  3. The Lymphatics of the Head, Face, and Neck
  4. The Lymphatics of the Upper Extremity
  5. The Lymphatics of the Lower Extremity
  6. The Lymphatics of the Abdomen and Pelvis
  7. The Lymphatic Vessels of the Thorax
Bibliography
 
IX. Neurology
  1. Structure of the Nervous System
  2. Development of the Nervous System
  3. The Spinal Cord or Medulla Spinalis
  4. The Brain or Encephalon
    a. The Hind-brain or Rhombencephalon
    b. The Mid-brain or Mesencephalon
    c. The Fore-brain or Prosencephalon
    d. Composition and Central Connections of the Spinal Nerves
    e. Composition and Central Connections of the Spinal Nerves
    f. Pathways from the Brain to the Spinal Cord
    g. The Meninges of the Brain and Medulla Spinalis
    h. The Cerebrospinal Fluid
  5. The Cranial Nerves
    a. The Olfactory Nerves
    b. The Optic Nerve
    c. The Oculomotor Nerve
    d. The Trochlear Nerve
    e. The Trigeminal Nerve
    f. The Abducent Nerve
    g. The Facial Nerve
    h. The Acoustic Nerve
    i. The Glossopharyngeal Nerve
    j. The Vagus Nerve
    k. The Accessory Nerve
    l. The Hypoglossal Nerve
  6. The Spinal Nerves
    a. The Posterior Divisions
    b. The Anterior Divisions
    c. The Thoracic Nerves
    d. The Lumbosacral Plexus
    e. The Sacral and Coccygeal Nerves
  7. The Sympathetic Nerves
    a. The Cephalic Portion of the Sympathetic System
    b. The Cervical Portion of the Sympathetic System
    c. The Thoracic Portion of the Sympathetic System
    d. The Abdominal Portion of the Sympathetic System
    e. The Pelvic Portion of the Sympathetic System
    f. The Great Plexuses of the Sympathetic System
Bibliography
 
X. The Organs of the Senses and the Common Integument
  1. The Peripheral Organs of the Special Senses
    a. The Organs of Taste
    b. The Organ of Smell
    c. The Organ of Sight
    1. The Tunics of the Eye
    2. The Refracting Media
    3. The Accessory Organs of the Eye
    d. The Organ of Hearing
    1. The External Ear
    2. The Middle Ear or Tympanic Cavity
    3. The Auditory Ossicles
    4. The Internal Ear or Labyrinth
    e. Peripheral Terminations of Nerves of General Sensations
  2. The Common Integument
 
XI. Splanchnology
  1. The Respiratory Apparatus
    a. The Larynx
    b. The Trachea and Bronchi
    c. The Pleuræ
    d. The Mediastinum
    e. The Lungs
  2. The Digestive Apparatus
    a. The Mouth
    b. The Fauces
    c. The Pharynx
    d. The Esophagus
    e. The Abdomen
    f. The Stomach
    g. The Small Intestine
    h. The Large Intestine
    i. The Liver
    j. The Pancreas
  3. The Urogenital Apparatus
    a. Development of the Urinary and Generative Organs
    b. The Urinary Organs
    1. The Kidneys
    2. The Ureters
    3. The Urinary Bladder
    4. The Male Urethra
    5. The Female Urethra
    c. The Male Genital Organs
    1. The Testes and their Coverings
    2. The Ductus Deferens
    3. The Vesiculæ Seminales
    4. The Ejaculatory Ducts
    5. The Penis
    6. The Prostate
    7. The Bulbourethral Glands
    d. The Female Genital Organs
    1. The Ovaries
    2. The Uterine Tube
    3. The Uterus
    4. The Vagina
    5. The External Organs
    6. The Mammæ
  4. The Ductless Glands
    a. The Thyroid Gland
    b. The Parathyroid Glands
    c. The Thymus
    d. The Hypophysis Cerebri
    e. The Pineal Body
    f. The Chromaphil and Cortical Systems
    g. The Spleen
 
XII. Surface Anatomy and Surface Markings
  1. Surface Anatomy of the Head and Neck
  2. Surface Markings of Special Regions of the Head and Neck
  3. Surface Anatomy of the Back
  4. Surface Markings of the Back
  5. Surface Anatomy of the Thorax
  6. Surface Markings of the Thorax
  7. Surface Anatomy of the Abdomen
  8. Surface Markings of the Abdomen
  9. Surface Anatomy of the Perineum
  10. Surface Markings of the Perineum
  11. Surface Anatomy of the Upper Extremity
  12. Surface Markings of the Upper Extremity
  13. Surface Anatomy of the Lower Extremity
  14. Surface Markings of the Lower Extremity
Source: http://www.bartleby.com/107/

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Subject: AMEDEO Hyperlipoproteinemias 29.11.2010 - AID:150588




Sent By


"Sebastian Kamps"   On:November 27, 2010 7:51 AM
To:Prof Faridah
 
We have screened the following journals for you:
Am J Cardiol
Am J Clin Nutr
Ann Intern Med
Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol
Atherosclerosis
BMJ
Circulation
Clin Chem
Curr Opin Lipidol
Diabetes
J Lipid Res
J Clin Invest
JAMA
Lancet
Metabolism
N Engl J Med

________________ ** New articles **  _________________


1. SRIVASTAVA RA.
Evaluation of anti-atherosclerotic activities of PPAR-alpha, PPAR-gamma, and LXR
agonists in hyperlipidemic atherosclerosis-susceptible F(1)B hamsters.
Atherosclerosis. 2010.
http://amedeo.com/p2.php?id=21093860&s=lip&pm=4f60bb67bc2016d
ABSTRACT available


_____________________ ** End ** ______________________

Prayer of a Muslim Doctor


PRAYER OF A MUSLIM DOCTOR


In the name of Allah, the Magnificent, the Merciful


I swear by Allah, Most High

To regard Allah in carrying out my Profession

To protect Human life in all stages and under all circumstances

by doing my utmost deed

to rescue my patients from death, malady, pain and anxiety

To be all the way an instrument of Allah’s Mercy

in extending my medical care to near and far,

virtuous and sinner, friend and foe.

I promise to uphold my Profession

in keeping abreast in the various disciplines that I’ve been trained

I will consult my teachers, colleagues and learn from my patients

I will always remain a learner for as long as I live

For Allah is forever All-Knowing.

Amin, Amin, Ya Rabbal A’lamin



Faridah Abdul Rashid
6 January 2009

Modified from source:
School of Medical Sciences
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Health Campus
16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan, Malaysia